Glossary of Terms Related to Ethics

Please Note: Some of the following terms will be discussed in the course, Business, Government & Society (MANGT 596), during the semester (terms preceded with by this symbol a are especially important for students to know).

Many of the terms and concepts are hyperlinked to other information available on the Internet. This supplemental information is provided as an additional learning tool for students. However, please remember that not all information contained on the Internet can be deemed “academically reliable.” Students who are truly interested in understanding more about a given concept are encouraged to pursue a variety of different research methods. This glossary is also available in a printed form by going to the Document Center on this website.

 

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Absolutism. The belief that there is one and only one truth; those who espouse absolutism usually also believe that they know what this absolute truth is. In ethics, absolutism is usually contrasted to relativism.

aAcquired Characteristics. Those characteristics that define an individual after birth such as education, political affiliation, etc.

Agnosticism. The conviction that one simply does not know whether God exists or not; it is often accompanied with a further conviction that one need not care whether God really exists or not.

 

aAltruism. A selfless concern for other people purely for their own sake. Altruism is usually contrasted with selfishness or egoism in ethics.

 

aAmorality. Behavior that lies outside the sphere to which moral judgments are applied. Intentional amorality suggests that the individual purposely does not try to consider questions of right or wrong in day-to-day decision-making. Unintentional amorality suggests that the individual is unaware that moral judgments they make may adversely affect others. When this occurs, they often will reconsider that decision.

aAscribed Characteristics. Those characteristics that define an individual at birth such as gender, caste, religion, etc.

Atheism. The belief that God does not exist. In the last two centuries, some of the most influential atheistic philosophers have been Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, Bertrand Russell, and Jean-Paul Sartre.

 

aBusiness Ethics. The framing and understanding of right and wrong decision-making, good and evil behavior, just and unjust actions as they pertain to how the business community carries out day-to-day transactions.

 

Categorical Imperative. An unconditional command. For Immanuel Kant, all of morality depended on a single categorical imperative. One version of that imperative was, "Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law." See Universalism.

 

aConsequentialism. Any position in ethics that claims the degree of right or wrong of an action depends on its consequences, which is a fundamental basis for the concepts related to Teleology.

 

aDeontology. Any position in ethics that claims the degree of right or wrong of an action depends on whether it corresponds to our duty or not. The word derives from the Greek word for duty, deon. Typically, we speak of this “duty” as that which is related to or commanded by a “higher power” such as God, Allah, Budda, etc.

 

aDescriptive Ethics. A term referring to those standards believed to be grounded in matters of observation or experience. In this class we often refer to these as “What is” statements.

 

Dolors. Utilitarian units of pain or displeasure. See Hedons.

 

aEgalitarianism.  A belief in human equality especially with respect to social, political, and economic rights and privileges.

 

Emotivism. A philosophical theory, which holds that moral judgments are simply expressions of positive or negative feelings.

 

aEternal Laws. Moral standards that are revealed in scripture or apparent in nature and then interpreted by religious leaders or humanist philosophers. The belief is that everyone should act in accordance with a specific interpretation.

 

aEthical Egoism. A moral theory that, in its most common version (universal ethical egoism), states that each person ought to act in his or her own self-interest.

 

aEthics. The philosophical analysis and understanding of the moral rules, principals and values comprising an organized society. During this course, we will use the term ethics as the moral reflection that describes the organization as a whole. Not meant to be confused or interchanged with Morality.

 

Ethnicity. A person’s ethnicity refers to that individual’s affiliation with a particular cultural tradition that may be national (French) or regional (Sicilian) in character. Ethnicity differs from race in that ethnicity is a sociological concept whereas race is a biological phenomenon.

 

Eudaimonism. Or eudemonism. A moral theory related to the word that Aristotle used for "happiness" or "flourishing." It comes from the Greek "eu," which means "happy" or "well" or "harmonious," and "daimon," which refers to the individual’s spirit.

 

Eugenics. First coined by Sir Francis Galton in 1883 from the Greek word meaning “good birth.” A study of agencies under social contract that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, whether physically or mentally.

 

aGaia Theory. A belief (considered radical by many) by those who espouse natural rights that the earth itself is a dynamic, living organism that feels “pain.” See Naturalism.

 

aGolden Rule. An example of a moral standard that reflects absolutism as well as an eternal law. It suggests that an individual should act in a manner, as they would want others to act towards them.

 

Hedon. This is a term that utilitarian’s use to designate a unit of pleasure. Its opposite is a dolor, which is a unit of pain or displeasure. The term "hedon" comes from the Greek word for pleasure. See Dolors.

 

aHedonism. Have, or pertaining to, pleasure. Popularized in the modern saying, “If it feels good, do it.” Ethical hedonism would promote the pursuit of individual pleasure as long as it does not harm others.

aJustice. Justice is the mechanism to ensure that moral standards, which are based upon the primacy of a single value, are upheld. Distributive justice suggests that everyone should act to ensure a more equitable distribution of benefits, for this promotes individual self-respect, which is essential for social cooperation. Justice is dependent upon broad acceptance of certain rules and laws by a broad majority of society. See Rights.

Means. Philosophers often contrast means and ends. The ends we seek are the goals we try to achieve, while the means are the actions or things that we use in order to accomplish those ends. For example, a hammer provides the means for pounding a nail into a piece of wood. Some philosophers, most notably Immanuel Kant, have argued that we should never treat human beings merely as means to an end.

 

Moral Isolationism. The view that we ought not to be morally concerned with, or involved with, people outside of our own immediate group. Moral isolationism is often a consequence of some versions of moral absolutism.

 

Moral Epistemology. Epistemology focuses on the structure and justification of knowledge on a particular area of inquiry. In this case, moral epistemology asks “how is moral knowledge possible”?

 

aMoral Pluralism. The belief that there are multiple perspectives on an issue, each of which contains part of the truth but none of which contain the whole truth. In ethics, moral pluralism is the belief that different moral theories each capture part of truth of the moral life, but none of those theories has the entire answer.

 

aMoral Rights. The belief that certain rules of behavior or conduct apply equally and uniformly to everyone.

 

aMorality. Morality refers to the beliefs and practices about good and evil by means of which serve to guide individual behavior. In this class, we will refer to morality as the composite of values and principles associated with individual behavior. See Ethics.

 

aNatural Law. In ethics, believers in natural law hold (a) that there is a natural order to the human world, (b) that this natural order is good, and (c) that people therefore ought not to violate that order.

 

Natural Rights. See Rights.

 

Naturalism. In ethics, naturalism is the theory that moral values can be derived from facts about the world and human nature. The naturalist hold that “is" can imply "ought." See Gaia Hypothesis.

 

Nihilism. The belief that there is no value or truth. Literally, a belief in nothing (nihil). Most philosophical discussions of nihilism arise out of a consideration of Friedrich Nietzsche’s remarks on nihilism, especially in The Will to Power.

 

aNormative Ethics. A term referring to those standards a society determines to be the norm or the accepted level of conformance. In this class, we often refer to these as “What are” statements.

 

Objectivism. The belief that each person should seek his or her own happiness through a productive life where objective reasoning is the only guide to action. Objectivism supports a laissez-faire marketplace and opposes most government involvement in any aspect of non-economic life. This philosophy was developed by Ayn Rand and continues with many adherents.

 

aPersonal Liberty. Moral standards that are based upon the primacy of a single value—liberty. Everyone should act to ensure greater freedom of choice, for this promotes market exchange, which is essential for social productivity.

 

Positivism. A belief that ethical assertions (which are rational) can be scientifically verified or logically proven.

 

Pragmatism. A belief that the truth behind any ethical assertion can be judged only by its practical consequences.

 

aPrinciples. Sets of values that form the basis of moral standards such as “honesty” and “trust.” Such sets of principles become the basis for determining how ethical a given society truly is. See Values.

 

Relativism. In ethics, there are two main type of relativism. Descriptive ethical relativism simply claims as a matter of fact that different people have different moral beliefs, but it takes no stand on whether those beliefs are valid or not. Normative ethical relativism claims that each culture’s (or group’s) beliefs are right within that culture, and that it is impossible to validly judge another culture’s values from the outside.

 

aRights are entitlements to do something without interference from other people (negative rights) or entitlements that obligate others to do something positive to assist you (positive rights). Some rights (natural rights, human rights) belong to everyone by nature or simply by virtue of being human; some rights (legal rights) belong to people by virtue of their membership in a particular political state; other rights (moral rights) are based in acceptance of a particular moral belief.

aTeleology. Any position in ethics that claims the degree of right or wrong of an action depends on the consequences that ensue.

aUniversalism. A maxim is universal if it can consistently be willed as a law that everyone ought to obey. The only maxims, which are morally good, are those that can be universalized. The test of universalism suggests that everyone has the same moral obligations in morally similar situations. The principle is that everyone should act to ensure that others, given similar circumstances, would reach similar decisions.

 

aUtilitarianism. A moral theory that says that “right” is whatever produces the greatest overall amount of pleasure (hedonistic utilitarianism) or happiness (eudemonistic utilitarianism). Some utilitarian’s (act utilitarian’s) claim that we should weigh the consequences of each individual action, while others (rule utilitarian’s) maintain that we should look at the consequences of adopting particular rules of conduct. An underlying emphasis to utilitarian theory is that everyone should act to generate the greatest benefits for the largest number of people.

 

aValues. A single standard reflected by an individual such as “I will not lie” or “I will not deceive.” Several such values form the basis of moral principles that guide individuals as they interact with others in a given society. See Principles.

 

Part of this list was contributed by Professor Lawrence Hinman, University of San Diego.